Facebook has added multiple restrictions on when and how the Like button is displayed when in a visitor is from the EU. You can read more about it on their page describing the Like Button in the large section "Changes to Social Plugins in the European Region":
https://developers.facebook.com/docs/plugins/like-button/
As for the image not displaying, unfortunately, there's not anything further we can do about that. The tags are properly being set and even the Facebook Debugger is showing them correctly.
The only suggestion we'd have at this point would be to wait a few days to let Facebook's cache fully update the new tags on your server. That's not a great answer though.
The best way to proceed would be to submit a bug report with Facebook about the issue with the same details you've provided here. You can submit a bug report using the following link:
developers.facebook.com/support/bugs/
I hope that helps, but if there's anything more you need from us, please let me know.
Thanks,
Alex